Gender Revolution amid Gender Inequality? Uncovering the Multidimensional Complexity of Gender Ideology in Contemporary India

Recent studies have challenged the assumption that gender ideology falls along a single continuum with gender egalitarianism at one end and traditionalism at the other. Using latent class analysis with nationally representative data, this paper extends the literature by exploring the patterns of gender ideology in India, where gender inequality is a much severer issue compared with many countries previously investigated. I find that fully egalitarian class and traditional class account for 8% and 19% of the sample, respectively, while the rest of the sample are divided into four classes that distinctively combine gender egalitarianism and traditionalism in different domains, reflecting the widespread multidimensionality of gender ideology in modern India. In particular, I show that individuals in these ambivalent classes generally favored dual-breadwinner model, women's participation in household decision-making and politics, and men's involvement in domestic work. But at the same time they held traditional beliefs emphasizing male primacy in intimate relationship, labor market, and cultural traditions like handling parents' funeral. The findings indicate that even in the context of profound and prolonged gender inequality, there have been some signs of gender revolution taking place in India, but social norms enhancing patriarchy made configurations of gender role attitudes rather complex.