Individual Characteristics and European Identity: A Meta-Analysis

Extensive research has examined the socio-demographic determinants of European identity, and several published reviews discuss the main findings of these studies. In line with the socio-structural approach, factors such as education, income, and upper-class position have been found to be associated with European identity. Moreover, cultural and political factors, such as having a universalist outlook, transnational experiences, and intense political interests, have also been proven to be related to European identification. However, uncertainty still exists regarding the robustness and consistency of these effects. To fill this gap, this study conducts a meta-analysis of the association between major socio-demographic characteristics (age, gender, education, income, and ideology) and subjective identification as European or feeling attachment to Europe. It covers all published quantitative studies in English on the matter since 2000, as well as grey literature. By synthesizing a multitude of empirical studies written over the last three decades, this paper sheds light on core findings regarding this important aspect of individual Europeanization.