Anomalous Absolutism: Examining the Last Outposts of Absolute Monarchy in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa

Brunei and Eswatini are political outliers in Southeast Asia and Southern Africa, respectively. These nation-states persist as the sole absolute monarchies outside the Gulf region. This comparative analysis investigates the socio-political factors that have allowed these two states to emerge with absolute rule while their regional counterparts transitioned towards democratic regimes. By tracing their unique state formation processes, I will show how colonial encounters and regional dynamics led to the consolidation of absolute power. Brunei, a former sultanate controlling lucrative maritime trade, became a British protectorate. Its subsequent oil wealth fueled economic growth, enabling the Sultan to maintain absolute control through extensive social welfare programs. Eswatini, formerly Swaziland, navigated complex power dynamics with its neighbors, including the Zulu kingdom, Afrikaner republics, and British colonial authorities. The monarchy skillfully leveraged these relationships to consolidate its internal power and secure its sovereignty. Similar to Brunei, Eswatini is also reliant on a single economic sector, particularly on agriculture. Despite their geographical and historical differences, both kingdoms share the experience of British indirect rule, which often strengthened the authority of pre-colonial rulers. By empowering the monarchs to maintain stability and facilitate economic interests, the British inadvertently contributed to the entrenchment of absolutism that persists to this day. However, both rulers have also made decisions that led to the formation of absolutism. This shared legacy provides a crucial point of comparison, highlighting how historical forces can shape the political trajectories of post-colonial states. Furthermore, this analysis examines how contemporary Bruneian and Eswatinian societies negotiate being citizens/subjects under perpetual emergency rule. By comparing these two cases, we can discern how specific historical, economic, and socio-cultural factors converged to produce these anomalous cases of absolutism, contributing to a deeper understanding of the diverse pathways of state formation and the persistence of non-democratic regimes in the 21st century.